Investigating the Amount of Quantitative and Qualitative Loss of Wheat and Ways to Reduce It

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

Department of Biosystem Engineering, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran.

10.22084/best.2025.30499.1005

Abstract

This review article provides a comprehensive analysis of wheat losses across the supply chain, from pre-harvest to post-harvest stages, and explores strategies to mitigate these losses to enhance global food security and sustainability. Wheat, a vital cereal crop, faces significant quantitative and qualitative losses due to factors such as pests, diseases, inefficient agricultural practices, inadequate storage, and environmental challenges. In developing countries, losses are predominantly concentrated at the farm level due to limited access to modern technologies and infrastructure, while developed countries experience higher losses during the consumption phase. The review highlights the importance of
adopting advanced technologies and sustainable practices to reduce losses. Mechanized harvesting, when properly calibrated, can minimize grain shedding and breakage, while modern storage solutions like expanded metal silos and controlled-environment systems can prevent spoilage and pest infestations. Solar-powered drying methods and biodegradable packaging materials offer environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional practices. Pre-harvest interventions, such as cultivating high-yielding and pestresistant seed varieties, optimizing planting practices, and improving soil health, are also critical for reducing losses at the source. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the need for integrated approaches, including farmer education, policy support, and cross-sector collaboration, to address wheat losses effectively. By implementing evidence-based solutions tailored to local contexts, stakeholders can enhance food availability, reduce economic pressures, and promote environmental sustainability. This review serves as a roadmap for minimizing wheat losses, ensuring a resilient and efficient supply chain, and contributing to global food security for future generations.

Keywords

References

[1] Abdoli, B., Zare, D., Jafari, A., & Chen, G. (2018). Evaluation of the air-borne ultrasound on fluidized bed drying of shelled corn: Effectiveness, grain quality, and energy consumption. Drying Technology, 36(14), 1749-1766.
[2] Agheleshkhani, A. R. (2017). The yield of the combine harvester compared to a typical wheat harvest. Journal of Biosystems Engineering, 6(3), 1-9. (in Persian).
[3] Ajwani-Ramchandani, R., Figueira, S., de Oliveira, R. T., Jha, S., Ramchandani, A., & Schuricht, L. (2021). Towards a circular economy for packaging waste by using new technologies: The case of large multinationals in emerging economies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 281, 125-139.
[4] Alt, D. S., Paul, P. A., Lindsey, A. J., & Lindsey, L. E. (2019). Early Wheat harvest influenced grain quality and profit but not yield. Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management, 5(1), 1-6.
[5] Arah, I. K., Amaglo, H., Kumah, E. K., & Ofori, H. (2015). Preharvest and postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life of harvested tomatoes: a mini review. International Journal of Agronomy, 2015(1), 478041.
[6] Bala, B. K. (2016). Drying and storage of cereal grains. John Wiley & Sons.
[7] Bechoff, A., Shee, A., Mvumi, B. M., Ngwenyama, P., Debelo, H., Ferruzzi, M. G., ... & Tomlins, K. I. (2022). Estimation of nutritional postharvest losses along food value chains: A case study of three key food security commodities in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Security, 14(3), 571-590.
[8] Bendito, A., & Twomlow, S. (2015). Promoting climate smart approaches to post-harvest challenges in Rwanda. International journal of agricultural sustainability, 13(3), 222-239.
[9] Costa, S. J. (2014). Reducing food losses in sub-saharan Africa. An ‘Action research’evaluation trial from Uganda and Burkina Faso.
[10] Donate, M. J., & de Pablo, J. D. S. (2015). The role of knowledge-oriented leadership in knowledge management practices and innovation. Journal of business research, 68(2), 360-370.
[11] Dong, F., Wang, Y., Su, B., Hua, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2019). The process of peak CO2 emissions in developed economies: A perspective of industrialization and urbanization. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 141, 61-75.
[12] Ekepu, D., Tirivanhu, P., & Nampala, P. (2017). Assessing farmer involvement in collective action for enhancing the sorghum value chain in Soroti, Uganda. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 45(1), 118-130.
[13] FAO. (2022). World Food and Agriculture Statistical Yearbook 2022. FAO.
[14] Fleurat-Lessard, F. (2017). Integrated management of the risks of stored grain spoilage by seedborne fungi and contamination by storage mould mycotoxins–An update. Journal of Stored Products Research, 71, 22-40.
[15] Fu, J., Chen, Z., Han, L., & Ren, L. (2018). Review of grain threshing theory and technology. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 11(3), 12-20.
[16] Fujisao, K., Khanthavong, P., Oudthachit, S., Matsumoto, N., Homma, K., Asai, H., & Shiraiwa, T. (2020). Impacts of the continuous maize cultivation on soil properties in Sainyabuli province, Laos. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 11231.
[17] Ghaziani, S., Dehbozorgi, G., Bakhshoodeh, M., & Doluschitz, R. (2023). Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives. Sustainability, 15(16), 12569.
[18] Habiba, U., Abedin, M. A., & Shaw, R. (2015). Introduction and overview of food security and risk reduction issues. Food security and risk reduction in Bangladesh, 1-17.
[19] Hollaway, G. J., Evans, M. L., Wallwork, H., Dyson, C. B., & McKay, A. C. (2013). Yield loss in cereals, caused by Fusarium culmorum and F. pseudograminearum, is related to fungal DNA in soil prior to planting, rainfall, and cereal type. Plant Disease, 97(7), 977-982.
[20] Hossain, M. A., Rahman, H., Ahmmed, M. M., Khan, A. U., Hossen, M. A., & Nath, B. C. (2023). Development of a Power Tiller Operated Safe Grain Cleaner. American Journal of Pure and Applied Biosciences, 5, 116-123.
[21] John, A. (2014). Rodent outbreaks and rice pre-harvest losses in Southeast Asia. Food Security, 6, 249-260.
[22] Ju, X. T., Kou, C. L., Zhang, F. S., & Christie, P. (2006). Nitrogen balance and groundwater nitrate contamination: comparison among three intensive cropping systems on the North China Plain. Environmental pollution, 143(1), 117-125.
[23] Kalia, A., & Gosal, S. K. (2011). Effect of pesticide application on soil microorganisms. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 57(6), 569-596.
[24] Khodkam, H., & Najafi, B. (2021). The impact of wealth on the amount and type of waste produced and type of waste produced and choosing the best place it build a biogas plant using hierarchical analysis (A case study of Boukan city). Journal of Renewable and New Energy, 8(2), 43-49. (In Persian)
[25] Kiaya, V. (2014). Post-harvest losses and strategies to reduce them. Technical Paper on Postharvest Losses, Action Contre la Faim (ACF), 25(3), 1-25.
[26] Kühling, I., Redozubov, D., Broll, G., & Trautz, D. (2017). Impact of tillage, seeding rate and seeding depth on soil moisture and dryland spring wheat yield in Western Siberia. Soil and Tillage Research, 170, 43-52.
[27] Kumar, D., & Kalita, P. (2017). Reducing postharvest losses during storage of grain crops to strengthen food security in developing countries. Foods, 6(1), 8.
[28] Lad, P. P., Pachpor, N. A., Lomate, S. K., Fadavale, P. R., & Dhamane, A. S. (2020). Development and compare performance evaluation of traditional, pedal operated and modified pedal operated portable paddy thresher for small farmers. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(1), 1033-1039.
[29] Lal, R. (2005). Soil erosion and carbon dynamics. Soil and Tillage Research, 81(2), 137-142.
[30] Laskowski, W., Górska-Warsewicz, H., Rejman, K., Czeczotko, M., & Zwolińska, J. (2019). How important are cereals and cereal products in the average polish diet?. Nutrients, 11(3), 679.
[31] Lipinski, B., Hanson, C., Waite, R., Searchinger, T., & Lomax, J. (2013). Reducing food loss and waste.
[32] Maciel, G., De La Torre, D., Bartosik, R., Izquierdo, N., & Cendoya, G. (2015). Effect of oil content of sunflower seeds on the equilibrium moisture relationship and the safe storage condition. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 17(2).
[33] Manzoor, A., Maan, A. A., Khan, I. A., & Shahbaz, B. (2021). A Mixed-Method Study To Enhance Food Security By Reducing Post-Harvest Wheat Losses In Punjab, Pakistan. Humanities, 2, 87-99.
[34] Mesterházy, Á., Oláh, J., & Popp, J. (2020). Losses in the grain supply chain: Causes and solutions. Sustainability, 12(6), 2342.
[35] Mohan, A., Schillinger, W. F., & Gill, K. S. (2013). Wheat seedling emergence from deep planting depths and its relationship with coleoptile length. PLoS One, 8(9), e73314.
[36] Mokhtor, S. A., El Pebrian, D., & Johari, N. A. A. (2020). Actual field speed of rice combine harvester and its influence on grain loss in Malaysian paddy field. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 19(6), 422-425.
[37] Moriarty, K. (2013). Feasibility Study of Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste in St. Bernard, Louisiana: (pp. 1-48). Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
[38] Nath, B. C., Huda, M. D., Rahman, M. M., & Paul, S. (2021). Essential Steps for Developing Rice Harvest Mechanization in Bangladesh. Cutting-edge Research in Agricultural Sciences, 7, 109-125.
[39] Nath, B. C., Nam, Y. S., Huda, M. D., Rahman, M. M., Ali, P., & Paul, S. (2017). Status and constrain for mechanization of rice harvesting system in Bangladesh. Agricultural Sciences, 8(6), 492-506.
[40] Nath, B. C., Paul, S., Huda, M. D., Hossen, M. A., Bhuiyan, M. G. K., & Islam, A. S. (2022). Combine Harvester: Small Machine Solves Big Rice Harvesting Problem of Bangladesh. Agricultural Sciences, 13(2), 201-220.
[41] Nath, B., Chen, G., O’Sullivan, C. M., & Zare, D. (2024). Research and Technologies to Reduce Grain Postharvest Losses: A Review. Foods, 13(12), 1875.
[42] Nawi, N. M., Chen, G., & Zare, D. (2010). The effect of different climatic conditions on wheat harvesting strategy and return. Biosystems Engineering, 106(4), 493-502.
[43] Oerke, E. C. (2006). Crop losses to pests. The Journal of agricultural science, 144(1), 31-43.
[44] Oerke, E. C., & Dehne, H. W. (2004). Safeguarding production—losses in major crops and the role of crop protection. Crop protection, 23(4), 275-285.
[45] Oguntade, A. E., Thylmann, D., & Deimling, S. (2014). Post-Harvest Losses of Rice in Nigeria and Their Ecological Footprint. GIZ.
[46] Oliver, M. A., & Gregory, P. J. (2015). Soil, food security and human health: a review. European Journal of Soil Science, 66(2), 257-276.
[47] Omotajo, O. R., Olaniyan, O., & Mudahunga, J. C. (2018). Effects of Agribusiness Investments on Postharvest Losses and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Maize and Beans Value Chains in Nyagatare District, Rwanda (pp. 1-16). IFAD Working papers.
[48] Østergaard, A. A., Lillebaek, T., Petersen, I., Fløe, A., Bøkan, E. H. W., Hilberg, O., ... & Johansen, I. S. (2024). Prevalence estimates of tuberculosis infection in adults in Denmark: a retrospective nationwide register-based crosssectional study, 2010 to 2018. Eurosurveillance, 29(12), 2300590.
[49] Rahimzadeh, R., & Navid, H. (2011). Different tillage methods impacts on a clay soil properties and wheat production in rotation with chickpea under rainfed condition. Journal of Agricultural Science and Sustainable Production, 21(1), 29-41. (In Persian)
[50] Raut, R. D., Gardas, B. B., Kharat, M., & Narkhede, B. (2018). Modeling the drivers of post-harvest losses– MCDM approach. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 154, 426-433.
[51] Razavizadeh, N., Zare, D., Nassiri, S. M., Karim, A., Eslami, M., & Nematollahi, M. A. (2023). Experimental study and numerical simulation of resistance to airflow in a storage bin of rough rice with three inlet duct configurations. Biosystems Engineering, 225, 118-131.
[52] Riaz, M., Ismail, T., & Akhtar, S. (2017). Harvesting, threshing, processing, and products of rice. Rice production worldwide, 419-453.
[53] Ronga, D., Dal Prà, A., Immovilli, A., Ruozzi, F., Davolio, R., & Pacchioli, M. T. (2020). Effects of harvest time on the yield and quality of winter wheat hay produced in Northern Italy. Agronomy, 10(6), 917.
[54] Safari, M., & Rostami, M. A. (2023). Comparison of Dry Land Wheat Grain Harvest Losses in Different Types of Chaff Collector Combine Harvesters in Kurdistan Province. Journal of Agricultural Machinery, 13(3), 309- 319. (in Persian).
[55] Sani, M. A., Azizi-Lalabadi, M., Tavassoli, M., Mohammadi, K., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Recent advances in the development of smart and active biodegradable packaging materials. Nanomaterials, 11(5), 1331.
[56] Shah, D. (2013). Assessment of pre and post harvest losses in tur and soyabean crops in Maharashtra. AgroEconomic Research Centre Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics: Pune, India.
[57] Shewry, P. R., & Hey, S. J. (2015). The contribution of wheat to human diet and health. Food and energy security, 4(3), 178-202.
[58] Tadesse Dessalegn, T. D., Tesfaye Solomon, T. S., Tesfaye Gebre Kristos, T. G. K., Abiy Solomon, A. S., Shure Seboka, S. S., Yazie Chane, Y. C., ... & Mahroof, R. (2017). Post-harvest wheat losses in Africa: an Ethiopian case study.
[59] Tefera, T., Mugo, S., & Beyene, Y. (2016). Developing and deploying insect resistant maize varieties to reduce pre-and post-harvest food losses in Africa. Food Security, 8(1), 211-220.
[60] Turner, A. P., Jackson, J. J., Sama, M. P., & Montross, M. D. (2021). Impact of delayed harvest on corn yield and harvest losses. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 37(4), 595-604.
[61] van Gogh, B., Boerrigter, H., Noordam, M., Ruben, R., & Timmermans, T. (2017). Post-harvest loss reduction: a value chain perspective on the role of postharvest management in attaining economically and environmentally sustainable food chains (No. 1751). Wageningen Food & Biobased Research.
[62] Yang, T., Siddique, K. H., & Liu, K. (2020). Cropping systems in agriculture and their impact on soil health-A review. Global Ecology and Conservation, 23, e01118.
[63] Zufiaurre, E., Abba, A. M., & Bilenca, D. N. (2019). Assessment of stakeholder perceptions of the damage to silo bags by vertebrate species in Argentina. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 24(1), 80-86.
Biosystems Engineering and Sustainable Technologies
Volume 1, Issue 2
December 2025
Pages 1-10

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics